The Sweep and Force of Section Three (William Baude & Michael Stokes Paulsen)

Abstract: Section Three of the Fourteenth Amendment forbids holding office by for
mer office holders who then participate in insurrection or rebellion. Because of a
range of misperceptions and mistaken assumptions, Section Three’s full legal conse
quences have not been appreciated or enforced. This article corrects those mistakes
by setting forth the full sweep and force of Section Three.

First, Section Three remains an enforceable part of the Constitution, not limited to
the Civil War, and not effectively repealed by nineteenth century amnesty legislation.
Second, Section Three is self-executing, operating as an immediate disqualification
from office, without the need for additional action by Congress. It can and should be
enforced by every official, state or federal, who judges qualifications. Third, to the
extent of any conflict with prior constitutional rules, Section Three repeals, super
sedes, or simply satisfies them. This includes the rules against bills of attainder or ex
post facto laws, the Due Process Clause, and even the free speech principles of the
First Amendment. Fourth, Section Three covers a broad range of conduct against the
authority of the constitutional order, including many instances of indirect participa
tion or support as “aid or comfort.” It covers a broad range of former offices, including
the Presidency. And in particular, it disqualifies former President Donald Trump,
and potentially many others, because of their participation in the attempted over
throw of the 2020 presidential election.

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
I. Section Three is Legally Operative Today ……………………………………………….. 7
A. The Generality and Presumptive Perpetuity of Constitutional Language ……….. 7
B. Has Congress Removed the Disability for Everyone for All Time? (And Could It
Do So If It Wanted To?) ……………………………………………………………………………….. 11
II. Section Three is Legally Self-Executing ……………………………………………….. 17
A. Section Three as Automatic Legal Disqualification ……………………………………. 17
B. Who (All) Can (Must) Faithfully Apply and Enforce Section Three? …………….. 22

1. Seeking Office ……………………………………………………………………………………… 23
   a. by election ………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
   b. by appointment ………………………………………………………………………………… 26
2. Holding Office ……………………………………………………………………………………… 27
3. Special Situations ………………………………………………………………………………… 29
   C. The Problem of Griffin’s Case …………………………………………………………………… 35
4. Background …………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
5. Chase on Section Three ………………………………………………………………………… 37
   a. “The argument from inconveniences, great as these” …………………………… 37
   b. The argument from “the intention of the people” …………………………………. 40
   Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4532751
   2

c. The argument that Section Three should not be read to depart from the
“spirit” of prior constitutional law ………………………………………………………….. 42
d. The argument from the Section Five enforcement power ……………………… 44

3. Griffin’s Self-Defeating and Highly Irregular Dictum ……………………………… 45
   III. Section Three Supersedes, Qualifies, or Satisfies Prior Constitutional
   Provisions …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
   A. Bills of Attainder…………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
   B. Ex Post Facto Laws …………………………………………………………………………………. 54
   C. Due Process of Law …………………………………………………………………………………. 56
   D. The Ominous Question: Section Three and the First Amendment ………………… 57
   IV. Section Three’s Substantive Disqualification is Sweeping …………………. 61
   A. Section Three’s Disqualifying Conduct: “Insurrection or Rebellion”; “Engaged In”;
   “Aid or Comfort” to “Enemies” ……………………………………………………………………… 63
4. Working definitions ……………………………………………………………………………… 64
5. Contemporaneous Dictionary Definitions ………………………………………………. 69
6. Intratextualism ……………………………………………………………………………………. 72
7. Contemporaneous Public, Political, Legal Usage …………………………………….. 73
   a. President Lincoln ……………………………………………………………………………… 74
   b. Congress ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 79
   i. The Ironclad Oath ………………………………………………………………………….. 79
   ii. The Second Confiscation Act ………………………………………………………….. 81
   c. The Supreme Court’s decision in The Prize Cases ………………………………… 84
8. Other Extant Statutory Sources and Notorious Examples ………………………. 86
   a. The Insurrection Acts (and Insurrections Generally) …………………………… 86
   b. The Congressional Exclusion Debates ………………………………………………… 92
9. Legislative History ………………………………………………………………………………. 98
10. Early Applications of Section Three ………………………………………………………. 99
    B. What Prior Officeholders are Covered? What Future Offices are Barred? ……. 104
    C. The Attempted Overthrow of the 2020 Presidential Election ……………………… 111
11. The Question of Coverage: Insurrection and Rebellion ………………………….. 112
12. The Question of Participation: “Engaged in” and “Aid or Comfort” …………. 116
    a. General Principles Concerning Culpable Participation ………………………. 116
    b. Section Three Disqualifies Donald Trump from Future Office …………….. 117
    c. Beyond Trump ………………………………………………………………………………… 121
    Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 124

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4532751
The Sweep and Force of Section Three
172 U. PA. L. REV. (forthcoming 2024)
William Baude* & Michael Stokes Paulsen**

Introduction
“Section 3 has long since faded into history.” – Eric Foner1
Reports of Section Three’s demise are greatly exaggerated. It turns out that
Section Three of the Fourteenth Amendment remains of direct and dramatic rele
vance today—a vital, fully operative rule of constitutional law with potentially far
reaching contemporary real-world consequences. Section Three remains in legal
force, and has a broad substantive sweep.

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